1.Ingestion of Food:-

Food is taken through mouth cavity. It is

masticated by teeth and swallowed. Ingestion

takes place in buccal cavity. Salivary glands

lubricate the food and bind the food particles

together to form bolus. Salivary glands have

starch splitting enzyme ptyalin.

2.Digestion of Food:-

Process of converting complex, insoluble, food

particles into simple, soluble and absorbable

form is called digestion.

(i) Digestion in Buccal Cavity:- in buccal

cavity, salivary amylase acts on starch.

(ii) Digestion in Stomach:- The food passes

down through the oesophagus into

stomach. Now food is mixed with gastric

juice and hydrochloric acid, which

disinfect the food and create acidic

medium. Pepsin digests proteins and

converts them into peptones and

proteases. Rennie converts milk to curd.

digested foof now is called chyme.

(iii) Digestion in Small Intestine:- rhyme moves to

duodenum. Food is mixed with bile (liver) to

breakdown fats into smaller globules. Trypsin acts

upon proteins and breaks them into peptides.

Amylase converts starch into simple sugar. Lypase

converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Food passes

into ileum and mixes with intestinal juice. Maltase

converts maltese into glucose. Lactase converts

lactose into glucose and galactose. Sucrase converts

sucrose into glucose and fructose. Trypsin digests the

peptides into amino acids. Food now is called chyle.

3.Absorption and Assimilation of
Digested Food:-

Ileum's internal surface has finger-like folds called villi.

There is a dense network of blood capillaries and lymph

capillaries in each villi. It helps in absorption of food.

Absorption is the process by which the end products of

digestion pass through the intestinal mucosa into the blood

or lymph. It is carried out by passive, active or facilitated

transport mechanisms.

Transport of water depends upon the osmotic

gradient. Active transport occurs against the

concentration gradient and requires energy.

Nutrients like amino acids, monosaccharides like

glucose, electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed into

the blood by this mechanism.

Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble cannot

be absorbed into the blood. They are re-formed

into very small protein coated fat globules called

the chylomicrons, which are Uansported into the

lymph vessels (lacteals) in tile villi. The absorbed

substances finally reach the tissues, which

utilise them for their activities. This process is

called assimilation.

4.Egestion of Undigested Food:-

Digested food passes into large intestine.

Large intestine cannot absorb food but

absorbs much of the water. The remaining

semi-solid waste is called faeces and is

passed into rectum. The digestive wastes,

solidified into coherent faeces in the rectum

initiate a neural reflex causing an urge or

desire for its removal. It is expelled out

through the anus.

Proteins:-

The term 'protein' was coined by berzelius(1837) and Mulder(1838). Though approximately 300 amino acids occurs in nature but only 20 make the composition of proteins.

Proteins are polymers of amino acids.

 All amino  acids have a common structure.

 The only difference between the different amino acids lies With R-Group in general formula.

 The R-Group have quite diverse chemical  properties.

All amino acids, apart from the simplest one (glycine) show optical isomerism. 

This can result in two different arrangements as shown in the diagram. With a very few

minor exceptions (e.g., bacterial cell wall contains D-amino acids) only the L-forms are found in living organisms.

Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA), histamine serotonin, ornithine, citruline and B-alanine are the amino acids which are not found in proteins.

Glycine is the simplest amino acid with lowest molecular weight and absence of asymmetrical carbon atom. 

It is involved in the formation of heme.

Tryptophan is the most complex amino acid containing indole ring.

Methionine and cysteine are sulphur containing amino  acids.

In proline and hydroxyproline, insteadof NH2 (amino)group, NH (imino) group is present.

These amino acids are called imino acids.

Proteins contain L-(laevorotatory) isomers of amino acids.

D-(Dextrorotatory) isomers of amino acids, are found only in bacterial cell walls.

Lysine and arginine are basic amino acids, which contain more than one amino groups.          Glutamic acid and asparticacid are acidic amino acids, which contain more than one

acidic groups.

Tryptophan amino acid forms the vitamin nicotinamide and a plant hormone Indole Acetic Acid (IAA). 

Amino acids that cannot be synthesized in the body are called essential amino acids, while those which can be synthesized in the body and need not be supplied in the diet are called non-essential or

dispensable amino acids. 

For human beings eight amino acids are essential. Infants require arginine and histidine in

addition.

DNA REPLICATION:-

        The process of copying a parent DNA molecule to form two daughter

DNA molecule is called DNA Replication.

      Any organism can grow through the division of its own calls. before

a Cell can divide, it must replicate all of its DNA. The process oo replication

occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle. During  replication the cellular

DNA machinery  duplicates each DNA molecule. Each resulting  DNA molecule

is called a chromatid.

      Due to replication, the each daughter cell thus receives an identical  set

Of chromosomes when the parental cell divides.DNA replication is controlled

by DNA itself.

     The self complementary nature of DNA allows each of the two strands

of a parental  DNA molecule to serve as template for the formation  of a daughter 

Stands. This process is Called DNA replication. However, the replication is complex 

multi-step process, involving several enzymes.

    Many proteins are involved in replication. these proteins included DNA hwlicase,                    single stranded DNA binding proteins, topoisomerases, primase, DNA polymerase,                   sliding clamps, RNAse H and DNA ligase.

       DNA helicases are a class of enzymes that couple ATP hydrolases to

the separation of DNA strands. The DNA helicases involved in replication are

typically hexameric proteins in the shape of a ring. The junction between  

the newly separated template strands and the unreplicated double

DNA is called the replication fork.

      The replicated fork can be looked at as moving continuously towards

the unreplicated double stranded DNA.

       Single stranded DNA binding protein or SSBS, bind to the single

DNA -to stabilize the separated strands.

       As the DNA unwinds the twist number decreases. Therefore the unwinds

number must increase, causing the DNA to become positively super coilrd.

These super coils are removed .by topoisomerases.

       DNA replication requires an RNA primer to begin. Primase is a specialized 

RNA polymerase which makes short RNA primers using small ssDNA as a template.               Primase is activated by association with other DNA replication proteins,

such as DNA helicase.

     The synthesis of DNA is catalyses by an enzyme called DNA polymerase.

DNA polymerase is only able to add dNTPs to the 3' end of a polynucleotide 

Due to the anti parallel nature of DNA one strand is synthesized continuously

toward the replication fork. While the other strand is synthesized discontinuously

away from the replication fork.

     The continuously replicated strand is called leading strand, and the

discontinuously replicated strand is called lagging strand.

    It takes approximately one second for a DNA polymerase to bind to

DNA. However once replication has begun, DNA polymerase are capable of

adding up to thousand nucleotides to the growing daughter strand every second.

The ability of an enzyme to catalyze many reaction before releasing' its substrate

is called processivity.

    To increase the degree of processivity of DNA polyomerases, a sliding

DNA clamp binds to the DNA and DNA polymerase  them together.

     DNA polymerase can only add small dNTP to the 3’ end of a

polynucleotide of lagging strand because both DNA strands must be paired

In the same overall direction through the replication machinery the lagging 

strand is synthesized discontinuously in small fragmen

      The short fragments of DNA found on the lagging Strands are called

okazaki fragments.

   To complete let DNA replication, the RNA primers must be removed.

The RNAse H specifically degrades RNA that is base pair with DNA.

      Removal of the RNA primers leaves gaps in the double stranded DNA.

These gaps are filled in by a DNA polymerase.

       Finally, the nick between The 3' hydroxyle of the repaired section and 5'                               phosphoryl of the replicated section are repaired by the DNA ligase.

Benefits Of Yoga:-

• yoga work by stretching muscle therefor you move better and feel good.
• Yoga can help you when you is some disease.
• In today's life 40+ age people we can see commonly back pain problem but yoga move can help you and treat you/
• Yoga help you not immediately but long time.
• Yoga is a way for you don't know what is problem in your body. yoga can solve this problem.
• Yoga can reduce stress, lower heart rate and blood pressure control.

Some Yoga Move:-

(1)For Back Pain:-

 Lower Back Pain:-

• Spine Hamstring Stretch
• Two-Knee Twist
• Sphinx
• Pigeon
• Legs Up to Wall

 Upper back Pain:-

• Cobra Pose
• Dolphin pose
• Easy Pose
• Half frog Pose

(2)Leg Pain:-

• Legs Up the wall Pose
• Standing Forward Fold
• Seated Forward Fold
• Supported Bridge Pose

Watch my Blog next time i blog some new move.

Biotechnology In Medicine:-

• There are many application of biotechnology in medicine i.e. diagnosis and treatment or diseases and the maintenance of health.
• Through genetics regarding human,biotechnology has found use in genetic counselling, artenatal diagnosis and gene therapy.
• In forensic medicine, Biotechnology has already been used for identification of criminals.
• There are various applications of biotechnology in animal and human health care either directly or indirectly ways.
• In indirect ways, it involves manufacture of nutritional food through single cell proteins and in detecting food contamination using molecular probes.
• In direct ways, it involves efforts to overcome the menu due to variety of disease.
• There would be through (i) Development of vaccines for immunity.
• (ii)Diagnosis of diseases at an early stage of its onset.
• (iii)treatment of the diseases 
• (iv)Fertility control.
• Genetic counselling for couples who think that their child may be at a risk of congenital disease.
• It was now become routine in medical practices in developed countries.
• DNA fingerprinting and Autoantibody fingerprinting are useful in forensic medicine for identification or murderer , rapists etc. 

Branches of Ecology:-

There are two main branches in ecology:

(1) Animal Ecology:-

             This branch related with animals and its surrounding environment.

(2)Plant ecology:-

            This branch related with plants and surrounding environment.

Further, Ecology is often broadly divided in to:-

(1)Autecology:-

           Includes the study other ecology of an individual or a particular species of organism.

(2)Synecology or community ecology:-

          Includes the study of community or entire population.

        It ideas with the inter-relationship between plants and animals  and this forms the basis of community.

(3)Habitat Ecology:-

   It depends upon the study of habitats and their effects on the living organisms on earth.

 In includes forest ecology, grass land ecology, cropland ecology, desert ecology, fresh water ecology, marine ecology etc.

(4)Population Ecology:-

   Includes the study of the inter-relationship of different groups of organisms, including the manner of growth, structure and distribution of population. Population ecology is also called the demecology.

(5)Ecosystem Ecology:-

Deals with study and analysis of ecosystem including soil formation, nutrient cycle, energy flow and productivity. 

Scope of Ecology:-

• Ecology is the science that needs minimum time and labour for its introduction to a layman.
• Present day problems of varied nature in human life are directly or indirectly very much related to ecology, as their solution needs an ecological knowledge.
• These days ecology has been contributing very much to socio-economic, political and other similar policies of the world.
• It is so common to find references of ecology in socio-economic writings, magazines, weeklies and daily newspapers.
• There are interdependencies not only between ecology and other areas of plant sciences, but also between ecology and physical as well as social sciences.
• Ecology indeed plays an important role in human welfare. 
• This is primarily a field subject and modern ecology is concerned with the functional interdependencies between living things and their environment.
• The scope of ecology means"ecology is the science of all the relations of all organisms to all their environments.
• Ecology plays an important role in agriculture, management of glasslands, forestry, biological surveys, pest control, fishery biology and in the conservation of soil, wildlife,forest,water supplies, etc.
• The international problems of environmental pollution also needs ecological assistance.
• As well as it can be very useful in solving the problem of climate change and global worming.